| Latest History NCERT Notes, Solutions and Extra Q & A (Class 8th to 12th) | |||||||||||||||||||
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Latest Class 8th History NCERT Notes, NCERT Question Solutions and Extra Q & A
1. Introduction: How, When And Where
This introductory chapter explores the methodology of history, emphasizing that it is not just about memorizing dates. It explains that dates become important because they are linked to significant events and help us create a chronological narrative of cause and effect. The chapter discusses the concept of periodisation, critiquing the colonial historian James Mill's division of Indian history into 'Hindu', 'Muslim', and 'British' periods, which was based on the religion of the rulers and suggested that the pre-British era was one of darkness. Historians now prefer a division into 'Ancient', 'Medieval', and 'Modern' periods. It also delves into the various sources historians use, particularly the official administrative records, surveys, and censuses meticulously maintained by the British. However, it highlights the limitations of these records, as they only present the official perspective, and stresses the need to consult unofficial sources like diaries, newspapers, and autobiographies to understand the experiences of ordinary people.
2. From Trade To Territory The Company Establishes Power
This chapter charts the astonishing transformation of the English East India Company from a private trading venture into the political master of India. Arriving in the early 17th century for trade, the Company gradually exploited India's political fragmentation. The pivotal Battle of Plassey (1757) and the Battle of Buxar (1764) gave it control over the rich province of Bengal. The Company then expanded its empire through shrewd political strategies. These included the Subsidiary Alliance, where Indian rulers were forced to accept British troops and cede control of their foreign policy, and the aggressive Doctrine of Lapse, under which states without a natural heir were annexed. Through a combination of warfare, diplomacy, and administrative policies, the Company systematically dismantled existing Indian kingdoms and established itself as the paramount power, laying the foundation for nearly two centuries of British rule.
3. Ruling The Countryside
This chapter examines the profound impact of British rule on rural India. After gaining political control, the East India Company's primary objective was to maximize its income from land. To achieve this, it introduced several new revenue policies. The Permanent Settlement in Bengal fixed the land revenue to be paid by zamindars, which led to the severe exploitation of peasants. The Ryotwari Settlement in South India collected revenue directly from the cultivators (ryots), but the rates were often so high that peasants were driven into debt. The Mahalwari Settlement in the North-West collected revenue from the village (mahal). These policies, coupled with the British demand for cash crops like indigo and opium, disrupted traditional agricultural practices, impoverished the peasantry, and caused widespread rural indebtedness and distress, fundamentally altering the structure of the Indian countryside.
4. Tribals, Dikus And The Vision Of A Golden Age
This chapter focuses on the lives of India's tribal communities and how they were affected by colonial rule. It describes their diverse traditional lifestyles, including jhum (shifting) cultivation, hunting-gathering, and herding, which were deeply intertwined with the forests. The British colonial state saw these communities as "wild" and difficult to control. British policies, especially the new forest laws, declared forests as state property, severely restricting tribal access to their traditional lands and livelihoods. The intrusion of outsiders—moneylenders, traders, and contractors, whom the tribals called 'Dikus'—led to their economic exploitation and loss of land. This dispossession and oppression resulted in numerous tribal revolts. The chapter highlights the movement led by Birsa Munda, who sought to drive out the British and the 'Dikus' and re-establish a tribal "Golden Age" of justice and independence.
5. When People Revolt 1857 And After
This chapter provides a detailed account of the great uprising of 1857, a major turning point in Indian history. It analyzes the accumulated grievances that led to the Revolt of 1857, including political causes like the Doctrine of Lapse, economic exploitation, social and religious interference, and the discontent among Indian sepoys. The immediate trigger was the introduction of the new rifle with greased cartridges, rumored to be coated with cow and pig fat, offending both Hindu and Muslim soldiers. The revolt began in Meerut and spread across northern and central India, with leaders like Rani Lakshmibai, Nana Saheb, and Begum Hazrat Mahal leading the resistance, and Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar declared as its symbolic head. Although brutally suppressed, the revolt ended the rule of the East India Company and brought India directly under the British Crown in 1858, leading to significant changes in British administration and policies.
6. Civilising The “Native”, Educating The Nation
This chapter scrutinizes the British perspective on education in India, which was rooted in their belief of cultural superiority and a self-proclaimed "civilising mission." It details the debate between the Orientalists, who advocated for the promotion of traditional Indian learning, and the Anglicists, who argued that Western education through the medium of English was superior. The Anglicist view, championed by Thomas Babington Macaulay, ultimately prevailed. Macaulay's Minute of 1835 aimed to create a class of Indians who were "English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect." Later, the Wood's Despatch of 1854 laid out a comprehensive plan for education from primary to university level. The chapter also explores the Indian response to this system, including critiques by nationalist leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, who argued that it created a sense of inferiority and called for a system of national education rooted in Indian culture.
7. Women, Caste And Reform
This chapter highlights the vibrant period of social reform in 19th-century India, which challenged deep-rooted social evils concerning women and the caste system. It discusses the deplorable conditions of women, including practices like Sati (widow immolation), child marriage, and the prohibition on widow remarriage. It also examines the rigid and oppressive caste hierarchy and the practice of untouchability. The chapter celebrates the pioneering efforts of reformers like Raja Rammohun Roy, who campaigned against Sati; Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, who championed widow remarriage; and Jyotirao Phule, who fought against caste discrimination and promoted education for lower-caste girls. These movements, led by both men and women, initiated crucial debates and pushed for legislative changes, laying the groundwork for a more just and equitable modern Indian society.
8. The Making Of The National Movement: 1870s-–1947
This chapter narrates the epic story of India's struggle for independence. It traces the emergence of national consciousness and the formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885. The journey of the Indian national movement is explored through its various phases: the initial Moderate phase of petitions and appeals; the assertive Extremist phase, which gained momentum during the Swadeshi movement after the Partition of Bengal in 1905; and finally, the mass-based Gandhian era. The arrival of Mahatma Gandhi transformed the freedom struggle, introducing the powerful tool of non-violent resistance or Satyagraha. The chapter covers the landmark movements he led, including the Non-Cooperation Movement, the Civil Disobedience Movement (starting with the Dandi March), and the decisive Quit India Movement of 1942. The long and arduous struggle culminated in India's independence on August 15, 1947, though it was tragically accompanied by the Partition of the country.